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Antarctica Is The Driest, Coldest Place On Earth<\/h2>\n
The seventh and most southernmost continent holds several world records, including the coldest temperature ever recorded and the least amount of precipitation, including snow. The coldest temperature<\/a> that human-made instruments have ever recorded was 128.56 degrees Fahrenheit below zero – that’s equal to 89.6 degrees Celsius below zero! It was recorded at the Vostok research station in Antarctica.<\/p>\n The aptly named Dry Valleys, located in Antarctica, are the driest place on earth. They have so little precipitation that, despite being on the frozen continent, they have almost no snow or ice on them.<\/p>\n Polar regions, such as Alaska, Greenland, and northern parts of Canada, are notoriously windy, with wind speeds that can exceed 100 miles per hour. Antarctica, in addition to having the coldest temperature recorded and driest location on earth<\/a>, holds no exception to high polar winds.<\/p>\n In fact, winds on the southernmost continent have been known to reach 200 miles per hour. That wind speed is equal to a category-five hurricane! Human-made instruments are unable to cope with wind speeds that are that extreme so the highest wind speeds could be over 200 miles per hour.<\/p>\n The Antarctic ice sheet is the single largest ice sheet on the planet, and it covers much of the continent. In fact, 99% of Antarctica is covered in ice! Furthermore, the continent is big, larger than Australia or the United States. That is a lot of ice.<\/p>\n The ice in Antarctica contains over half of the world’s fresh water<\/a>, with some estimates placing that number as high as 70%! It also includes 90% of the planet’s freshwater ice. Moreover, inside that freshwater is an abundance of minerals that have been locked away in frozen solitude for millions of years.<\/p>\n Not only is 99% of the continent covered in an ice sheet, but that ice sheet is remarkably thick. The average thickness<\/a> of the ice is one mile. Imagine having to walk 5280 feet in order to reach the bottom of the ice sheet!<\/p>\n The thickness of the ice in Antarctica makes research there somewhat tricky. To find what lies underneath all of the ice, researchers have to drill down a mile, or even more in some places, to get to the bottom of it. That process is dangerous, expensive, and time-consuming, as the instruments can freeze, and the people doing the drilling can very quickly get frostbite.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Climate change is caused by human activity, notably the burning of fossil fuels. Polar regions – especially Alaska, Greenland, northern Russia, and Antarctica – are experiencing the worst effects of the earth’s rising temperatures. Their temperatures are rising much more rapidly than in other parts of the world, and their ice is melting at an alarming rate.<\/p>\n News that another portion of the Antarctic ice sheet is melting hits the news with astonishing regularity. We have reason to be very, very concerned: if only the West Antarctic Ice Sheet melts entirely, the world’s ocean levels will rise by an astonishing 16 feet<\/a>. That rise will inundate and flood coastal areas and cause them to become uninhabitable.<\/p>\n The Gamburtsev Mountains are a range that stretches 750 miles across Antarctica, and the mountain peaks rise to 9,000 feet. With one mile equaling 5280 feet, some of the peaks are nearly two miles high, which is still not nearly as high as Mount Everest but indeed a respectable height.<\/p>\n What makes the Gamburtsev Mountains<\/a> so astonishing is that they are completely buried under ice. The ice sheet in that part of Antarctica is nearly 16,000 feet – almost three miles – thick. Studying the Gamburtsev Mountains requires the use of tools and equipment that can take images of them underneath the massive ice sheet.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The Grand Canyon<\/a>, located in Arizona, is one of the largest canyons on earth. It is over a mile deep in some places, 277 miles across, and 18 miles wide at its widest. Canyons are ideal places for studying geology, and the rock layers that are exposed in the canyon’s walls enable geologists to analyze billions of years into the earth’s past.<\/p>\n A 2009-2010 expedition into Antarctica revealed a comparable canyon underneath the ice. It is at least a mile deep and, as far as we know, at least 62 miles long. It could potentially be much bigger; scientists haven’t been able to measure it in its entirety because of the harsh weather conditions and large amounts of ice underneath it.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The Transantarctic Mountain Range divides the continent into two regions, east, and west. This natural barrier is all but insurmountable, as the highest peak is nearly as high as Mount Everest; Mount Kirkpatrick stands at an astonishing 14, 856 feet. Even flying an airplane over such a high ridge, especially given the weather conditions, is all but impossible.<\/p>\n The Transantarctic Mountain Range<\/a> is 2,175 miles long, making it not only one of the highest but also one of the most extended mountain ranges on the planet. Because the mountains are so inaccessible, studying them is very difficult.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n A frozen top layer does not mean that there is no tectonic or other geologic activity going on underneath the surface. Alaska, also a polar region that experiences very extreme weather, is home to many active volcanoes that have been known to erupt in the dead of the coldest winter months.<\/p>\n Mount Erebus<\/a>, located in Antarctica, is the most southerly active volcano on the planet; it is known as an ultra volcano and has many ice caves because of how the fumes emerging from the volcano have frozen. Other volcanoes in Antarctica include Mount Terra Nova, Mount Bird, Mount Sidley, and Mount Terror.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The only people who live in Antarctica are scientists who study the ice sheets, weather patterns, geology, and other aspects of the planet’s southernmost continent. To ensure peaceful cooperation among nations that wish to send researchers to Antarctica, the Antarctic Treaty<\/a> was ratified on December 1, 1959.<\/p>\n The writing of the treaty, which occurred during the uncertainty of the Cold War, took more than a year of negotiations among 12 countries, who were working secretly to write the treaty. Forty-eight countries are now signatories to the agreement, which safeguards Antarctica as a site of peaceful scientific research.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Approximately thirty countries have scientists that are actively engaged in research in Antarctica at any given time. To support those researchers while they live and work in the most extreme weather on the planet, research stations provide housing and laboratory facilities.<\/p>\n As of 2009, there were 80 research stations<\/a> located throughout Antarctica. They are occupied throughout the year, though the number of researchers peaks during the summer. During the winter, about 1000 core staff members remain, while during the summer, there may be 4000 or more people living and working in Antarctica.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Antarctica<\/a> is the only continent in the world that does not have an indigenous population, meaning that there were not many people that inhabited the continent before it was discovered. This means that people have not been engaging in any activities there that could damage the landscape (although burning fossil fuels is causing climate change that is dramatically changing Antarctica).<\/p>\n The lack of a longstanding human civilization means that Antarctica’s environment is remarkably pristine. It has the purest specimens of nature with very little contamination; these specimens have been entirely untouched by human activity, other than by scientists who have strict standards. Research in Antarctica helps reveal information about the entire planet.<\/p>\n More than a million years’ worth of information on the earth’s climate is recorded in Antarctica’s ice. Scientists who drill ice cores<\/a> can decipher the data contained in them in order to learn secrets about the history of our planet.<\/p>\n That data comes in the form of soil, patterns in the ice, and even samples of atmospheric contents that reveal the gases present on earth. Studying these ice cores reveals information about how the content of the atmosphere has changed over time, how the earth’s soil developed, and much, much more.<\/p>\n The earth is always changing; atmospheric conditions, weather patterns, water, everything is continuously in fluctuation. One challenge today is understanding how many of those changes that are occurring today are natural processes and how many are caused by human activity.<\/p>\n The pristine environment of Antarctica, which has been mostly untouched by humans (except for explorers and researchers), helps researchers differentiate between natural changes and human-made changes. What they are finding is that the vast majority of the rapid environmental changes that are occurring today are the direct result of human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels.<\/a><\/p>\n To get a clear picture of the night sky, astronomers need dry weather and, ideally, a high altitude. Antarctica<\/a> has both. Even better, it has insanely long winter nights that, at their worst, can last for a full two months! Talk about an ideal place for stargazing.<\/p>\n The environment in Antarctica enables astronomers to examine the stars, planets, galaxies, and other celestial bodies with almost as much precision as a space telescope! Yet because they do not have to build a space telescope and launch it into orbit, they can conduct their research for much, much cheaper.<\/p>\n The experience of being able to research Antarctica is genuinely unique. Scientists can look into some of the most pristine – and beautiful – environments on the entire planet to understand problems and challenges in original and ground-breaking ways.<\/p>\n Imagine doing one research tour in Antarctica and then being able to tell people for the rest of your life that you lived in Antarctica! Researchers<\/a> who have worked there get bragging rights for the rest of their lives, in addition to being able to say that they were a part of something amazing.<\/p>\n Living quarters for researchers working in Antarctica are not nearly as homey as conditions for those living and working in other parts of the world. While many scientists can go home to their houses in the suburbs, researchers in Antarctica lived in dormitory-style<\/a> settings. Some even live on ships.<\/p>\n These scientists can go for weeks at a time without getting any personal or alone time, mainly because being alone in Antarctic weather can mean certain death. They have long work hours and close sleeping quarters, meaning that there is very little time or opportunity for socializing.<\/p>\n Mining towns emerged in history as a means of housing a large population that moved to an area to work in a mine that had just been opened. Many of the workers left behind their families, as conditions were too difficult for women and children. Many people lived in tents, and there were very few opportunities for entertainment.<\/p>\n Researchers in Antarctica have some free time<\/a>, during which they may go to the coffee shop or bar at their station. They may even play trivia or watch a movie together. Nevertheless, everyone is living in a temporary situation, so all of the researchers know that their time together and the relationships that they form are temporary. Furthermore, no children are allowed, so many have to leave their families behind.<\/p>\n Polar weather is notoriously difficult to predict and can be incredibly unstable. Wind and snowstorms can spring up in a matter of minutes and turn a clear day into an unnavigable nightmare. Researchers have to carry emergency equipment<\/a> with them, including tents, in case a sudden storm causes them to get stranded.<\/p>\n Upon arrival, researchers in Antarctica have to undergo survival training to prepare them for the harsh realities of extreme polar weather. Survival in Antarctica has more to do with braving the elements than learning to hunt your food, as much of the continent is devoid of wildlife.<\/p>\n Preservation of Antarctica’s pristine environment is of the utmost concern for researchers who live on the frozen continent. Moreover, they go to some pretty extreme measures, including having to send human waste<\/a> back to their own countries for disposal! That’s right; they have to use toilets that are equipped to have the contents sent back home.<\/p>\n They also have to make sure that they carry out their experiments and research in such a way that disrupts the environment as little as possible. The researchers who work in Antarctica have to make some pretty serious sacrifices and commitments in order to make life there work.<\/p>\n Almost all of Antarctica is completely frozen – at least it was before global warming began to transform the landscape. Some isolated areas are not covered with snow and ice, usually because they receive no precipitation, and winds have blown all of the snow away.<\/p>\n Yet not all of the water in Antarctica is locked away in ice, as researchers have discovered some freshwater<\/a> lakes underneath the Antarctic glaciers. They have surprised scientists and led to a series of remarkable discoveries that seem to be genuinely out of this world. Nevertheless, they are not out of this world. They are real, and they are on our planet.<\/p>\n The water in the subglacial lakes<\/a> is about freezing but is just warm enough to flow around in a liquid state. This is because the immense pressure of the ice – which is often over a mile thick – is so intense that it warms the water on the very bottom.<\/p>\n Additionally, the warmth of magma that flows underneath the earth’s crust comes from below the lakes and causes the water to warm, just enough to be in a liquid state. So they aren’t exactly hot springs, but they exist in a sub-frozen state that only enables them to flow around and be considered freshwater lakes.<\/p>\n The Southern Ocean<\/a> surrounds much of Antarctica and contains many kinds of polar wildlife, including whales, seals, and micro-organisms. The Southern Ocean is full of icebergs that have broken off of Antarctic glaciers and ice sheets, so it can be complicated for a ship to navigate.<\/p>\n The water in the subglacial lakes of Antarctica flows in such a way that it pools together and streams down, underneath the glaciers, into the Southern Ocean. This freshwater that flows into a salty ocean has some impact on coastal wildlife, and the effects are something that researchers are trying to understand.<\/p>\n The lakes<\/a> that exist underneath Antarctica’s glaciers bear no resemblance to anything that we are aware of on this earth. Researchers who study them have likened their appearance to extraterrestrial landscapes because the structures and formations in them are so unique. In fact, studying them may provide insight into astrobiology, the field that studies the possibility of life on other planets.<\/p>\n The lakes are lined with ice that is full of bubbles, giving them an ethereal appearance that seems like it is out of this world. They are also very dark and very, very cold.<\/p>\n The lakes lie underneath glaciers that can be a mile thick or more. While ice may have a clear appearance in minimal amounts, this dense layer of ice has an opaque appearance that is solid white all the way through. You cannot see through a glacier.<\/p>\n As a result, no sunlight<\/a> can reach the subglacial lakes. They are pitch black, so photosynthesis – the process whereby plants and some microbial life forms synthesize energy from sunlight – is unable to happen there. By all accounts, there should not be any life that exists down there.<\/p>\n There are abundant signs of life in the subglacial lakes, but none of the macro-organisms<\/a> that we are familiar with. There are no penguins, fish, whales, or even plants such as seagrass or kelp. All of life is microbial, and it seems to be thriving.<\/p>\n Microbial life is incredibly resilient and can thrive in some of the harshest, most unforgiving climates on the planet. Evidence of microbial life in Antarctica’s subglacial lakes is seen in the chemical composition, which includes the chemical byproducts of life processes that include eating, eliminating waste, and dying.<\/p>\n The fossil water inside the subglacial lakes has high levels of dissolved minerals, which support the microbial lifeforms that live there. The minerals include carbon and other nutrients, which affect the chemical composition of the coastal areas of the Southern Ocean.<\/p>\n The lakes periodically drain out into the Southern Ocean and then are filled again by the water that flows and collects together. As the water flows out into the ocean, the minerals flow out and join the salty Southern Ocean. As more water flows in, the minerals recollect. The carbon levels<\/a> can replenish themselves within 4.8 to 11.9 years.<\/p>\n Scientists have concluded that the movement of magma underneath the earth’s crust causes the tectonic plates<\/a> on the surface to move. They slide around on the ocean of magma, so slowly that the movements are imperceptible but measurable over the long term.<\/p>\n A very similar scenario exists between the subglacial lakes and surface ice sheets. As the water flows around and drains into the Southern Ocean, the ice moves around. This movement causes the lake water to flow even more rapidly; this relationship between the lakes and the glaciers can actually be seen by measuring surface ice.<\/p>\n While finding one of these subglacial lakes would certainly be extraordinary, as of 2018, researchers had identified 379<\/a> of them! What this means is that they may be much more ordinary than scientists had initially thought, and estimates say that we are sure to discover many, many more.<\/p>\n Scientists have been finding the lakes by using radiography; they discovered the first one in 1970. The largest known subglacial lake is Lake Vostok; it is hundreds of meters deep, 50 kilometers across, and 240 kilometers long! Some areas have higher concentrations of lakes because of their unique geography, which is more conducive to lake formation.<\/p>\n The subglacial lakes of Antarctica have some of the most extreme conditions on the entire planet. The immense pressure upon the water affects the temperature at which water freezes, making them more akin to alien liquid bodies than other water bodies on earth.<\/p>\n These lakes are incredibly old; some estimates say that they may be 35 million years old<\/a> or more! They have been a longstanding feature of Antarctica’s landscape and have been affecting the ice sheets in ways that scientists are only now beginning to understand.<\/p>\n There are very few land animals that live in Antarctica. The largest animal that lives solely on the land there is a flightless bird known as Belgica Antarctica<\/a>, and it is only one-quarter of an inch in size! Most of its wildlife, including its penguins, is considered to be marine.<\/p>\n The wildlife of Antarctica includes killer whales, blue whales, and other large marine mammals that thrive in icy water, as well as seals and colossal squids. Many different types of penguins live there, including emperor penguins, southern rockhopper penguins, king penguins, Gentoo penguins, and chinstrap penguins.<\/p>\n While the wildlife in Antarctica is spectacular, large animals only occupy a tiny portion of the continent – mostly along its coastline. Its smaller lifeforms include phytoplankton, mites, nematodes, lice, tardigrades, springtails, krill, and rotifers.<\/p>\n However, most of the life<\/a> that lives in Antarctica is microbial. Algae are abundant, including microscopic diatoms. Some bacteria, in particular, favor the frigid conditions, as they have been found living as deep as 2600 feet underneath the ice. Microbial life is incredibly resilient and can thrive in some of the harshest conditions on the planet, where scientists least expect to find any living thing.<\/p>\n Geologic evidence suggests that tundra vegetation, including some forests, covered parts of Antarctica until as recently as about 15 million years ago. However, its inhospitable climate has made plant life there extremely rare. Plants<\/a> in Antarctica consist mostly of mosses and liverworts, which are primitive plants that do not have a vascular system,<\/p>\n Some flowering plants live in a few places along Antarctica’s coastline, and they only grow for a few weeks out of the summer. Researchers who study plant life in Antarctica can learn about some of the conditions on earth in its distant past.<\/p>\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_1626523441.jpg\")
Antarctica Is Also Extremely Windy<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica Has A Lot Of Fresh Water<\/h2>\n
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The Antarctic Ice Sheet Is Surprisingly Thick<\/h2>\n
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The Antarctic Ice Sheet Is Melting<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_78815008.jpg\")
The Ice Is So Thick That Some Mountain Ranges Are Completely Buried<\/h2>\n
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One Canyon In Antarctica May Be Larger Than The Grand Canyon<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica Has One Of The Largest Mountain Ranges On Earth<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_403149310.jpg\")
There Is An Active Volcano In Antarctica<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica Is Dedicated To Peaceful Research<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica Has About Seven Dozen Research Stations<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica’s Pristine Environment Is Important For Research<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica’s Ice Cores Hold A Climate Record For The Planet<\/h2>\n
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Scientists Are Learning What Changes Are Natural And What Changes Are Made By Humans<\/h2>\n
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Even Astronomers Work In Antarctica<\/h2>\n
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Research In Antarctica Is Pretty Awesome<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_1511262566.jpg\")
But There Is A Trade-Off<\/h2>\n
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Research Stations Are A Bit Like Mining Towns<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_560730208.jpg\")
They Endure Harsh Weather Conditions<\/h2>\n
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They Have Very Strict Protocols To Avoid Contamination<\/h2>\n
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One Remarkable Discovery Is Subglacial Lakes<\/h2>\n
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Tectonic Activity Warms The Water<\/h2>\n
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The Water Flows Into The Southern Ocean<\/h2>\n
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The Subglacial Lakes Have An Otherworldly Appearance<\/h2>\n
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No Sunlight Reaches The Lakes<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_1481347631.jpg\")
Yet They Are Full Of Life<\/h2>\n
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These Lakes Also Have Dissolved Minerals<\/h2>\n
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They May Affect Ice On The Surface<\/h2>\n
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Antarctica Has Over 300 Subglacial Lakes<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_424023244.jpg\")
They May Have Been In Existence For 35 Million Years Or More<\/h2>\n
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Scientists In Antarctica Also Study The Continent’s Wildlife<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_1496330648.jpg\")
But Most Of Its Life Is Microbial<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_1593330994.jpg\")
There Are Few Plants<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/dev.sciencesensei.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/shutterstock_777743011.jpg\")
There Are Some Fungi<\/h2>\n